Capturing Your Sound: A Guide to Live Recording
Abstract (summary)
Tips for music teachers on a budget to create
high-quality recordings of live
student performances are presented. The author address equipment selection,
different types of microphones and recorders, equipment placing and testing,
recording, postproduction and project completion.
Full text
Public
performances highlight months of work, but because most school groups cannot
afford to hire professional recording engineers, these events are rarely
suitably preserved. With small investments of time and equipment, you can
create an enduring recording of these fleeting performances. Many of today's
digital recording tools are fairly inexpensive and not too difficult to use,
once you have become familiar with the equipment and learned to manipulate the
apparatus and the environment, including even the air in the room. With the
right equipment and knowledge, you can capture the sound of your ensembles and
create a lasting record of your students' accomplishments.
When
recording a live
performance, the goal is to capture the audio experience from a single audience
member's perspective, a goal that is best achieved through a process called
distant, or stereo, miking.2 This process involves the following steps:
*
equipment selection
*
equipment placement and testing
*
recording: monitoring and documenting
*
postproduction: transfer and processing
* project
completion: burning and testing
This
article will guide you through each of these steps, offering tips and advice to help you
create high-quality recordings of live
student performances. The initial phases may require student assistance, but
you can complete the postproduction work in a more leisurely fashion, with the
equipment seeming to do most of the work.
A Note
about Copyright
Before
recording student performances, educate yourself about regulations related to
the recording of copyrighted music. Such recordings may be appropriate for
certain uses, but not for others. For example, a single recording used to
evaluate the progress of a student group may be acceptable under fair-use
guidelines, but you will probably need to pay royalties if you intend to make
multiple copies for distribution or sale. Visit MENC's Music Education
Copyright Center (www.menc.org/copyright) for information on copyright law, and
consult your schools attorney before recording if you're unsure about any of
the regulations.
Equipment
Selection
The first
step in the recording process is building your recording kit-the hardware that
captures the performance. When assembling your kit, you can focus on creating
the highest quality recording possible, or you can build a kit that focuses on
portability or economy-though with a possible decrease in quality.
Professional-quality kits are your best avenue for preventing problems caused
by equipment glitches that are more common with less-expensive or more-portable
gear. If the equipment required for a professional-quality kit is too expensive
or not portable enough, you can certainly get by with some of the
less-expensive or more-portable options.
The
Building Your Recording Kit sidebar lists items typically found in a recording
kit. The three most critical components of any recording kit are the
microphones, the mixing
console (mixer), and the recording device.
Microphones.
Microphones can be expensive, with some costing thousands of dollars each.
Fortunately, for less than $300, teachers on a budget can find matched-pair
condenser mics, as opposed to less-sensitive dynamic mics, that offer good
sensitivity and respond well to sounds in a wide range of frequencies.
For
advanced recording, condenser microphones with switched configurations (the
ability to capture sound from one, two, or all directions) can provide low
distortion, great dynamic range, and the flexibility to accommodate performers
by reconfiguring pickup patterns (the direction the mic records from). These
mics provide more options, but they may cost $1,000 or more, putting them out
of the price range of many school groups.
Dynamic
minicardioid microphones, a good option for a more portable kit, are available
for less than $100 a pair. Although these mics are normally placed on a mic
stand like the more-expensive condenser mics, they can be attached to the
recording engineer's eyeglasses (many can be purchased in this configuration).
These less-conspicuous mics can minimize the mic fright that panics some
performers. However, recordists wearing these mics may have to limit their
physical movements to prevent the mic from picking up movement-related sound,
such as the rustling of clothes.
Mixers.
Professional portable mixers are available for less than $200 and should have
two important features: balanced microphone inputs and the ability to supply
phantom power. Balanced inputs prevent unwanted noise from creeping into the
recording. Phantom power is necessary to run condenser microphones.
Recording
Devices. A wide range of recording devices exists. Analog devices, such as
cassette recorders, require more postproduction processing, but they shouldn't
be counted out. Many inexpensive four-track cassette recorders, available for
as little as $99, are still popular and do a great job, when properly handled.
In the
digital world, many additional options exist. Minidisc recorders with manual
recording controls don't require a mixer and are the most portable type of
device. These tend to cost from $250 to $1,000. Most minidisc recorders have
auto-gain controls that automatically adjust the recording volume up or down
when capturing sound. Because this destroys the nuances of soft and loud passages
inherent in musical performances, it is important to select a minidisc recorder
that either doesn't have this feature or allows you to turn the autogain off.
DAT (digital audio tape) recorders are another digital option. They provide
better sound quality than minidisc recorders; however, they are less popular
today because there are now less-expensive digital options.
Many
digital recorders that store recorded sound on flash cards, smart cards, or
hard disks are now available for a reasonable price. (Some companies use
microdrive or DVD-Rs, but these are not the most popular or functional options
available.) Digital recorders with memory-based storage (flash cards or smart
cards) are becoming smaller and more affordable, with prices starting at less than
$200. However, many are geared toward capturing individual musicians, not
ensembles. Hard-disk recorders with CD burners start at $399 and can process
your recording and create unedited CDs without additional equipment. It's also
possible to complete recordings with a laptop computer with a high-quality
PCMICA card, like Creative Lab's Audigy 2 Notebook Card, that typically costs
$100 to $200.
Local
music stores are often the best source of expertise and support in finding the
equipment that works best for a specific situation. The Web sites listed in the
Buying Your Recording Equipment sidebar can provide prices and purchasing
options.
Equipment
Placement and Testing
Microphone
and equipment placement is critical. Recordings with unwanted noise, thin or
shrieky sounds at high pitches, or distant- and reverberant-sounding ensembles
most often result from poor mic placement. When deciding where to place your
equipment, you will need to consider the availability of electrical outlets and
potential sources of unwanted noise, such as ventilation ducts and humproducing
electrical devices.5 To properly capture your group's sound, position two
microphones somewhere between ten and twenty feet from the performers. For
proper localization of the instruments (the equal capturing of all performers),
place the microphones as a coincident pair in the shape of an inverted V or as
a near-coincident pair in the shape of an X. (see figure 1 for an example of
each configuration.) The coincident pair works better with small ensembles,
while the near-coincident configuration provides a better stereo capture of
larger groups-like orchestras or bands. These configurations are easy to
install and maximize the recording potential.
The
optimum microphone positioning captures sound at the midpoint of the performing
ensemble while avoiding any extraneous interference (crowd noise) and remaining
as visually inconspicuous as possible. One concern involves the room's critical
distance (Dc). Critical distance is the point in the room where the direct
sound (the sound coming from the performers) is equal to the indirect sound
(reverberations bouncing off the rear and sides of the room). Capturing more
indirect sound than direct sound will create a tunnel-like effect that makes
the recording sound empty and reverberant. Try to place microphones at a point
closer than the critical distance, but far enough away to properly capture the
sound of all performers. (Being too close to the stage unfairly emphasizes
those closest to the microphones.) Microphone height is also important.
Ideally, mics should be positioned between six and eight feet high. This height
allows you to capture the sound from the audience's perspective. Greater height
can reduce crowd noise, but it can make mic stands unstable and may be visually
distracting to the audience.
The
recording equipment (mixer and recorder) should be as inconspicuous as possible
so that sound technicians can adjust the equipment during the event without
causing a disruption. Once mics and equipment are in place, you can place and
dress the mic cables. Follow the natural contours of the furniture and floor in
the room so that performers and audience members won't trip over the cables.
Liberally apply gaffer's tape to secure and cover all wires as per OSHA
(Occupational Health and Safety Administration) guidelines. Avoid obstructing
walkways or running cables near AC (alternating current) power cords. Audio
cables that must cross AC power lines should only do so at ninety-degree
angles. Otherwise, the mics will pick up a ground hum or low buzz.
After
dressing the cables, you can make final checks. Adjust the microphone settings
on the mixer. Settings to adjust include pan (panoramic) settings, also known
as balance controls. The pan settings on each mic need to be set separately-one
far left and one far right. Setting both to center will not create a proper
stereo recording.
Connect
the headphones the technicians will wear while recording, and turn all
equipment on. Unwrap and open the packages that your recording media
(cassettes, CDs, or disks) came in, and place the first item in the recorder.
Open any additional recording media or spare batteries and place them in a
convenient location. (Mics can pick up the sound of unwrapping packages during
a program.) Test your setup by turning on each mic channel, recording on the
channel, and playing back the recording. Now you can set your recording levels.
Recording:
Monitoring and Documenting
The best
method for setting levels depends on your equipment. With analog equipment
(cassette), the average recording volume should register close to 100 percent
on older VU (volume unit) meters, with loud peaks occasionally recording
"into the red." With newer LED meters, the average recording volume
should light up most of the green, with loud peaks occasionally lighting up the
yellow or red. Analog equipment is more forgiving than digital because it
allows peaks to go "into the red" without noticeable distortion.
Digital
equipment levels cannot exceed a predetermined peak established by the
manufacturer, known as digital full scale (DFS). This means that, unlike
analog, digital equipment cannot record "in the red." Levels cannot
be allowed to reach the maximum, or O dB. If recorded sounds exceed O dB, the
signal becomes distorted. The loudest peaks should be close to, but not
reaching, DFS.10 It is usually safest to record at -9 to -3 dB. Ideally, you
can set levels during rehearsal or when performers warm up on stage. When
unsure, it's best to set the levels too low.
When the
house lights dim and the performers take the stage, the musical performance
truly comes to life. Whatever is not captured is lost forever (retakes are
somewhat frowned upon at live
events). Throughout the performance, you or a trained student or adult
volunteer will need to monitor recording levels to prevent any loud segments
from causing distortions. If a loud segment of music reveals that the levels
were set too high, the levels should be slowly lowered to compensate. This
won't fix the loud segment, but it will prevent further loud passages and
crescendos from becoming distorted. When the performance is over, secure the
recorded media, pack up all cables and gear, and disassemble and store all
equipment.
Postproduction:
Transfer and Processing
Postproduction
includes transferring the recording to your editing equipment, creating backup
copies, normalizing (stabilizing dynamics), reducing noise, trimming, testing,
and burning a CD. For editing, you can use a dedicated audio editor (digital
audio workstation, or DAW) or a computer (Mac or PC) equipped with
audio-editing software. Although Digidesign's Pro Tools is the standard for
professional recording in the music and film industries, many lessexpensive options
are available for Mac and PC. (see the Audio-Editing Software sidebar for a
list of options.)
Begin
postproduction processing by transferring the songs to the workstation or
computer. This allows the audio-editing software to store and manipulate the
recording as a platform-specific waveform (.aiff on Macs, .wav on PCs). Many
newer hard-disk recorders can burn a data CD that you can simply load onto the
computer or workstation.
Transferring
music using analogbased computer inputs (stereo 1/8'' ports) may cause some
loss of quality in the conversion, but it is the most common and economical
method. Analog ports transfer the data as a varying, somewhat imprecise,
electrical signal, while digital ports send the audio as a series of precise
codes. If you recorded the performance on an analog device (cassette), the type
of port is irrelevant because the device captures and transfers the sound as an
analog signal, and the software will encode it digitally. If you recorded the
performance digitally, using analog ports will cause the signal to transform
from digital to analog and back to digital-losing some quality along the way.
With
digital sound cards, it's possible to keep everything in the digital realm, but
at an increased cost. These sound cards, which cost $99 to $399, have an
optical input that connects to digital devices (a digital recorder and
computer) with a fiber-optic cable. Some newer portable recorders bypass the
need for a digital sound card by using USB connections to connect to a computer
or workstation. (USB connections are a standard feature on most computers
available today.)
During
the transfer, monitor the input levels to avoid unwanted signal peaks. As with
the microphone capture, you may have to adjust levels to avoid recording a distorted
signal. If peaks occur, simply lower the levels and restart the transfer
process.
After
transfer, save the file. If the workstation is large and fast enough, it's best
to save the performance as one file to save time during editing. If not, you
can divide the performance into sections or save each piece as a separate file.
Back up your raw data onto data CDs for safekeeping. For postproduction
editing, you will need a good pair of headphones, a good pair of near-field
studio monitor speakers (special speakers designed to accurately reproduce the
sound for mixing), and an
adequate amplifier (50 watts per channel). You can monitor the initial
processing with your headphones and check the near-field monitors to ensure
your ability to hear details when making changes to the material.
Normalization:
Stabilizing the Dynamics. Normalization involves optimizing the available
signal by raising the overall levels of the waveform (the visual representation
of the sound wave) so that you will have as much sound as possible without the
distortion that would result from raising the levels too much. Because sounds
recorded at 100 percent on one system may play back at 102 percent on another,
causing signal distortion, normalization to 95 percent is recommended. You'll
need to highlight or select the entire waveform and apply normalization at 95
percent. However, before normalizing, you'll need to address the sounds of
applause and widely varying dynamic levels.
Since
applause is often the loudest recorded item, applying normalization to
everything would actually cause the volume of the recording to be based on the
applause, rather than the loudest music sections. Having loud applause also
causes listener discomfort on playback and must be avoided. If you do not plan
on removing the applause, you will need to lower its volume by highlighting
each area of applause and reducing the sound by 6 or 10 dB. If you do plan to
remove applause, it is best to do so before normalizing (see the Trimming and
Adjusting section below). Note that applause often begins before the sound has
decayed and removing the applause may also remove part of the performance.
Consistency is important during the normalization process. Premature applause
can make this process unusually tricky, whether removing applause or not. In
instances where percussion sounds are louder than the applause, it is still
appropriate to lower the applause levels for listeners' comfort.
The next
issue concerns dynamics. If 95 percent normalization is applied to two songs
with different dynamic ranges (a loud song and a soft song), the soft song will
sound as loud as the other, eliminating the contrast in dynamics between the
two songs. If you saved the entire event as one large file and properly lowered
the applause, applying normalization to the entire file, rather than each
individual piece, will preserve the dynamic variety of the performance. The
loud sections will be appropriately loud, and the soft sections will be
appropriately soft.
If each
song was saved separately, applying consistent normalization is a little
trickier. Begin by identifying the loudest portion of the loudest song. Then
copy a two- or three-second section of the loudest segment and paste it to the
beginning of each song before normalizing. Then, after normalizing, delete the
loud segment. This optimizes each song using the loudest segment as a reference
while preserving the dynamic variations of the performance.
Noise/Hiss
Reduction: Removing Unwanted Noise. Noise and hiss reduction can be powerful
tools in the digital audio-editing arsenal. How you apply these tools depends
on the software you are using. Some must be purchased separately as plug-ins.
When used properly, they can remove unwanted sounds like tape hiss, ambient
room noise, or AC equipment hum. However, when used improperly, they can create
phasing problems, which occur when two waveforms go out of sync with each other
and cause a "flattening" of the original sound. Noise and hiss
reduction can also generate artifacts, digital sound remnants that, at full
volume, sound like garbled speech, modem noise, or someone whispering in a bad
horror movie. Because of these potential problems, you should use noise and
hiss reduction sparingly-and only if they improve the recording. In many
instances, the ambient room sounds are a critical part of the final recording.
Crowd and performer sounds at live
elementary school concerts, for example, reflect the live feel of the location.
Trimming
and Adjusting: Tidying Up Each Track. Trimming and adjusting are the final
steps in prepping songs for preservation on CD. Trimming (or topping and
tailing) starts at the beginning of each waveform. Apply a minuscule fade-in
(less than .05 seconds) to the very beginning to prevent pops or clicks at the
song's introduction. You will also need to add a short segment (0.8 seconds) of
silence before this fade-in as a buffer to allow CD players to play the track
without skipping any of the beginning.18
How you
trim the end of the song depends on the presence of applause. If removing
applause, apply a one second fade-out when the last note of the song is at
around 5 percent of its maximum level in its final decay (i.e., the last
resonating note of a song). Otherwise, include five to eight seconds of
applause before applying a two-second fade-out. Then add two seconds of silence
after the fade-out to accommodate burning.
Project
Completion: Burning and Testing
The
production master can now be created and finalized as an audio CD using
"Disk at Once," an option available on most CD-burning software that
allows you to burn all songs in one continuous session. Finalizing is another
option available with most software that ensures the CD will play back on
various CD devices.20 After finalizing, you can listen to the completed
recording on different CD players or with large speaker systems set at a high
volume. Outside of minimal normalization, noise and hiss reduction, or
trimming, little other processing has occurred. This satisfies the archival
nature of the CD as a live
recording and preserves the character of the event as it was recorded.
Student
Involvement and Benefits
Most
music teachers are not interested only in student performances in concerts.
They also want to encourage student education and development in other
music-related endeavors. One way to enhance students' learning is to get them
involved in the recording process. Students can begin by learning how to
properly set levels during recording. Over time, they can assist in processing,
which will help them develop advanced ear training and gain a greater awareness
of sound quality. After an initial investment in time, students can often train
each other.
Capturing
your sound is inherently rewarding, challenging, and surprisingly inexpensive
with current technologies. You can use recordings to help students assess
themselves by listening to their own performances. Recording each performance
can also help you document your growth as a director and provide evidence for
promotional advancement. These recordings can be a valuable tool in maintaining
support for your music ensembles. By making a commitment to navigating the
challenges of performance preservation, you will be taking a rewarding first
step to enjoying these slices of time in the years to come.
Sidebar
New
technology mokes it easier thon ever to record your students' performances.
Sidebar
Building
Your recording Kit
Many
options exist for teachers building a recording kit. Below are some of the
basic items needed in any kit.
* Two
unidirectional condenser microphones or a minicardioid dynamic stereo
microphone pair
*
Microphone stand with dual mic adapter, which holds two microphones on one
stand
* Audio
cables
* Mixing console with balanced
microphone inputs and the ability to supply phantom power
* One of
the following recording devices:
* Analog
(cassette) recorder
* DAT
(digital audio tape) recorder
* Digital
recorder with memory-based storage (smart cards or flash cards)
*
Hard-disk digital recorder with CD burner
* Digital
minidisc recorder with manual gain controls (i.e., the ability to manually
adjust recording volume). A mixing
console is not required with this device.
*
Recording media (cassettes or CDs)
*
Headphones
*
Electrical cables
*
Gaffer's tape (stage tape, like duct tape without residue)
* Small,
unobtrusive light source
* Digital
audio workstation or a computer with audio-editing software
* Analog,
digital, or USB computer inputs for transferring data from recording device to
computer
Sidebar
Buying
Your recording Equipment
The
following Web sites offer recording equipment for sale. You can consult these
sites, as well as your local music stores, to purchase equipment or for
information about the recording equipment that is available:
* American
Musical Supply, www.americanmusical.com
* Bananas
at Large, www.bananas.com
*
Microphone Madness, www.microphonemadness.com
* Music
123, www.musicl23.com
*
Musician's Friend, www.musiciansfriend.com
* Sam
Ash, www.samash.com
*
Woodwind and Brasswind, www.wwbw.com
*
Zzounds.com, www.zzounds.com
Sidebar
Audio-Editing
Software
You can
use any of the following software in postproduction to remove unwanted noises,
reduce the volume of applause, and make sure the dynamics of the performance
are appropriate.
Software
for Macs
* Apple
Logic 7 Express
* Bias
Deck 3.5 or Bias Peak 4.0
*
Digidesign's ProTools
* MOTU
(Mark of the Unicorn) Performer 4.5
*
Steinberg Cubase SE or Nuendo 2.0
Software
for PCs
* Adobe
Audition (formerly Cool Edit Pro)
*
Cakewalk Sonar
* Magix
Samplitude 7
* Sony
Sound Forge 7.0
*
Steinberg Cubase SE, Nuendo 2.0, or Wavelab
Sidebar
"One
way to enhance students' learning is to get them involved in the recording
process."
Footnote
Notes
1.
William Moylan, The Art of Recording: Understanding and Grafting the Mix (Boston: Focal Press, 2002),
86.
2.
Stanley R. Alien, Audio in Media (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth / Thomson Learning,
2002), 304.
3. Jay
Althouse, Copyright: The Complete Guide for Music Educators (East Stroudsburg,
PA: Music in Action, 1984), 65.
4. Bruce
Bartlett and Jenny Bartlett, Practical Recording Techniques, 3rd ed. (Boston:
Focal Press, 2002), 20.
5. Ibid.,
75.
6. Ibid.,
118.
7. Alien,
Audio in Media, 334.
8. Shure
Inc., "Critical Distance and Microphone Placement," www.shure.com/
support/technotes/app-cri tical.html.
9. Alan
Hamilton, "The Language of the Show," ProSoundWeb, www.prosound
web.com/studyhall/psw_studyhall/stage_ terms, shtml.
10. Paul
While, Basic Mastering (London: Sancluary Publishing, 2000).
11.
Oplical Storage Technology Association, "Understanding CD-R and CD-RW:
Audio Recording," www.osta.org/ technology/cdqaS.htm.
12. Roger
Derry, PC Audio Editing: Broadcast, Desktop, and CD Audio Production, 3rd ed.
(Boston: Focal Press, 2003), 48.
13.
Ibid., 175.
14.
Richard Riley, Audio Editing with Cool Edit (Tonbridge, UK: PC Publishing,
2002), 23.
15.
Michael Cooper, "Managing Digital Levels," Keyboard Magazine,
November 1999, 96.
16.
Riley, Audio Editing with Cool Edit, 101.
17.
Derry, PC Audio Editing, 50.
18.
Bartlett and Bartlett, Practical Recording Techniques, 312.
19.
White, Basic Mastering, 50.
20. David
E. Reese and Lynne S. Gross, Radio Production Worktext: Studio and Equipment,
4th ed. (Boston: Focal Press, 2002), 76.
21. Paul
White, Basic Mixing
Techniques (London: Sanctuary Publishing, 2000), 102.
References
MENC
Resources
The
following items offer advice on creating recordings or using them with your
students.To order books or back issues of any MENC magazines, call
800-828-0229. Past articles are also available in periodical databases at many
libraries.
* Brophy,
Tim. "Making a Recording with Elementary Students." Teaching Music I,
no.4 (1994): 30-31.
* MENC.
Spotlight on Technology in the Music Classroom. Reston.VA: MENC, 2003. Item
#1695 ($16.50, MENC members; $22.00, nonmembers).
*
Merrill, James D. "Record Your Ensemble for Better Learning."
Teaching Music 11, no. 3 (2003): 34-37.
On the
Web
* MENC
members can post and answer questions and read others' comments and questions
about recording technology on the Technology Bulletin Board
(www.menc.org/technology).
* Information
about copyright issues related to recording student performances is available
at MENC's Music Education Copyright Center (www.menc.org/copyright/).
AuthorAffiliation
Tim
Clukey is an associate professor of communication at Plattsburgh State University
of New York in Plattsburgh. He can be reached at clukeytj@plattsburgh.edu.
Indexing (details)
Narrow
subject
Recording
Equipment (Audio), Microphones, Microphone
Placement, Mixing (Recording), Mixers
(Audio Equipment), Music
Students, Live Recordings
Broad
subject
Title
Capturing
Your Sound: A Guide to Live
Recording
Author
Publication
title
Volume
Issue
Pages
26-32
Publication
year
2006
Publication
date
Jan 2006
Year
2006
Publisher
MENC:
National Association for Music Education
Place of
publication
Reston,
Va.
Country
of publication
United
States
Journal
subject
ISSN
0027-4321
Source
type
Scholarly
Journals
Peer
reviewed
Yes
Language
of publication
English
Document
type
Instruction/Guidelines
Document
feature
Photographs;Illustrations;References
ProQuest
document ID
1109065
Document
URL
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1109065?accountid=144516
Last
updated
2012-09-17
Database
International
Index to Music Periodicals Full Text
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